1
00:00:40,615 --> 00:00:45,309
On completion of this training sequence,
you will be able to:
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00:00:45,309 --> 00:00:50,131
Repeat or reformulate the source text
while listening to it.
3
00:00:50,131 --> 00:00:53,823
Remember full sentences
while lagging behind
4
00:00:53,823 --> 00:01:00,423
Activate exit strategies while typing
if you realize the speaker is challenging.
5
00:01:01,908 --> 00:01:05,241
This is the agenda of this presentation.
6
00:01:05,241 --> 00:01:11,808
I will first recall the skills of the velotypist,
to then concentrate on the memory system
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00:01:11,808 --> 00:01:16,593
which is at the basis of typing
and simultaneous interpreting
8
00:01:16,593 --> 00:01:21,345
a mental activity very close
to real time subtitling.
9
00:01:21,345 --> 00:01:28,539
I will finally focus on the inferencing
and memorizing strategies,
10
00:01:28,539 --> 00:01:34,116
that you will be requested to practice
along the course to develop, reinforce,
11
00:01:34,116 --> 00:01:38,769
and finally maintain this skill
in two different contexts:
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00:01:38,769 --> 00:01:43,224
verbatim subtitling and sensatim subtitling.
13
00:01:48,636 --> 00:01:54,213
As you have seen a velotypist
has to do many things at the same time.
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00:01:54,213 --> 00:02:00,021
In Element1 LO1 we have dealt
with Psycho-cognitive skills,
15
00:02:00,021 --> 00:02:06,324
meaning all those skills related to being able
to listen and type at the same time,
16
00:02:06,324 --> 00:02:11,241
which is the first set of skills
a velotypist has to possess.
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00:02:11,241 --> 00:02:17,049
In particular, for a velotypist to be able
and become a professional in the field,
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00:02:17,049 --> 00:02:21,801
he or she has also to train
a good short-term memory
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00:02:21,801 --> 00:02:28,698
to be able and process as many concepts as possible,
and to apply exit strategies,
20
00:02:28,698 --> 00:02:34,803
or solutions to any problem
one may encounter in the subtitling process.
21
00:02:34,803 --> 00:02:38,169
While you can only develop these competences
22
00:02:38,169 --> 00:02:42,426
by the time and thanks to ad hoc exercises,
23
00:02:42,426 --> 00:02:47,805
you may be interested in knowing
how memory and short-term memory work.
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00:02:47,805 --> 00:02:52,227
That is what we are going to see
in the next section.
25
00:02:53,126 --> 00:02:59,388
In this Element, Element 2, we will deal with memory,
and the memory system.
26
00:03:04,372 --> 00:03:11,202
As we know, in any multitasking process
which involves doing two things at the same time,
27
00:03:11,202 --> 00:03:15,921
in velotyping,
two main types of strategies are involved:
28
00:03:15,921 --> 00:03:19,617
understanding,
aimed at comprehending the source text
29
00:03:19,617 --> 00:03:25,821
and typing, aimed at making the most
out of understanding under stressful conditions
30
00:03:25,821 --> 00:03:30,342
and with a reduced processing capacity
than usual.
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00:03:30,342 --> 00:03:33,576
In this, memory is crucial.
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00:03:33,576 --> 00:03:37,537
But what is memory
and how does its system work?
33
00:03:37,537 --> 00:03:44,565
Memory is commonly described as a system
for simultaneous storage and processing:
34
00:03:44,565 --> 00:03:53,475
several studies have attempted to investigate this aspect
belonging to interpreter’s and velotypist’s ability.
35
00:03:53,475 --> 00:03:57,864
While several different models of memory
have been proposed,
36
00:03:57,864 --> 00:04:05,487
the stage model of memory is often used to explain
the basic structure and function of memory.
37
00:04:05,487 --> 00:04:12,714
Initially proposed in 1968
by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin,
38
00:04:12,714 --> 00:04:17,004
this theory outlines
three separate stages of memory:
39
00:04:17,004 --> 00:04:22,680
sensory memory, short-term memory,
and long-term memory.
40
00:04:22,680 --> 00:04:27,069
Sensory memory
is the earliest stage of memory.
41
00:04:27,069 --> 00:04:35,121
During this stage, sensory information from the environment
is stored for a very brief period of time,
42
00:04:35,121 --> 00:04:41,061
generally for no longer than a half-second
for visual information
43
00:04:41,061 --> 00:04:45,087
and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information.
44
00:04:45,087 --> 00:04:50,235
We attend to only certain aspects
of this sensory memory,
45
00:04:50,235 --> 00:04:56,934
allowing some of this information to pass
into the next stage: short-term memory.
46
00:04:56,934 --> 00:05:02,907
Short-term memory stores information
for approximately 20-30 seconds.
47
00:05:02,907 --> 00:05:05,877
It is also known as Working Memory,
48
00:05:05,877 --> 00:05:14,523
which refers to the processes that are used
to temporarily store, organize, and manipulate information.
49
00:05:14,523 --> 00:05:18,648
In the next slide we will focus on short term memory
50
00:05:18,648 --> 00:05:24,951
as a crucial system for the simultaneous interpreter
and for the velotypist.
51
00:05:24,951 --> 00:05:30,330
Long-term memory refers
to the continuing storage of information.
52
00:05:30,330 --> 00:05:34,785
This information is largely outside of our awareness
53
00:05:34,785 --> 00:05:39,636
but can be called into working memory
to be used when needed.
54
00:05:41,880 --> 00:05:46,005
Working memory is key in interpreting and typing,
55
00:05:46,005 --> 00:05:49,833
due to the operation of several factors,
including:
56
00:05:49,833 --> 00:05:54,420
the time interval between the moment
the original speech is heard
57
00:05:54,420 --> 00:05:58,809
and the moment its processing for comprehension is finished.
58
00:05:58,809 --> 00:06:05,376
the time interval between the moment the message
to be typed or interpreted is determined
59
00:06:05,376 --> 00:06:08,247
and the completion of its formulation.
60
00:06:08,247 --> 00:06:12,603
and tactical moves, which are used,
for instance,
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00:06:12,603 --> 00:06:17,256
if a speech segment is unclear to the interpreter/velotypist
62
00:06:17,256 --> 00:06:21,645
because of bad sound quality,
a strong accent,
63
00:06:21,645 --> 00:06:26,562
unclear logic,
or errors in the source text itself.
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00:06:26,562 --> 00:06:30,588
We’ll now see
how the working memory system is structured,
65
00:06:30,588 --> 00:06:37,815
and I will refer to the model
put forward by Baddeley & Hitch, 1974.
66
00:06:37,815 --> 00:06:43,326
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) initially conceptualized a system
67
00:06:43,326 --> 00:06:47,154
involving three main components
of Working Memory.
68
00:06:47,154 --> 00:06:53,556
This model included an attentional system
known as the central executive,
69
00:06:53,556 --> 00:06:59,595
which is responsible for controlling and coordinating
the flow of information
70
00:06:59,595 --> 00:07:02,730
from the two subordinate systems:
71
00:07:02,730 --> 00:07:10,617
the visuo-spatial scratch pad,
which processes visual and spatial information,
72
00:07:10,617 --> 00:07:16,458
and the phonological loop,
which manages verbal information.
73
00:07:16,458 --> 00:07:21,738
The phonological loop, in turn,
consists of a phonological store
74
00:07:21,738 --> 00:07:27,513
where information is held for about 2 seconds
before it begins to decay.
75
00:07:27,513 --> 00:07:30,978
The second component is a rehearsal process
76
00:07:30,978 --> 00:07:37,413
that refreshes information in the store
via sub-vocal articulation.
77
00:07:37,413 --> 00:07:43,914
The central executive is considered
as the most important aspect of Working Memory.
78
00:07:43,914 --> 00:07:50,712
it is a regulatory mechanism
that controls information flow in Working Memory
79
00:07:50,712 --> 00:07:58,744
information retrieval from other memory systems,
and information storage and processing in Working Memory.
80
00:07:58,744 --> 00:08:05,364
The model allows for both storage
and manipulation of information.
81
00:08:05,364 --> 00:08:13,251
This memory model was revised by Baddeley in 2000
to include an ‘episodic buffer’,
82
00:08:13,251 --> 00:08:17,442
a multidimensional storage and processing component
83
00:08:17,442 --> 00:08:22,689
assumed to provide a temporary store of limited capacity
84
00:08:22,689 --> 00:08:31,665
that is capable of integrating information
from the subsidiary systems with that of Long Term Memory.
85
00:08:31,665 --> 00:08:38,694
It is assumed to be important
for the chunking of information in Short Term Memory.
86
00:08:38,694 --> 00:08:45,030
Buddley proposes that the buffer is a mechanism
for recalling the gist of a message
87
00:08:45,030 --> 00:08:48,495
rather than verbatim information.
88
00:08:48,495 --> 00:08:55,656
Now, we have said that memory is a system
for simultaneous storage and processing of the discourse.
89
00:08:55,656 --> 00:09:03,015
To help the velotypist/interpreter in his/her understanding
and accurately convey the message,
90
00:09:03,015 --> 00:09:06,777
it is the working memory that is crucial in carrying out
91
00:09:06,777 --> 00:09:11,727
all the processes during the velotyping/interpreting task,
92
00:09:11,727 --> 00:09:17,502
as the velotypist/interpreter retains what he/she has just heard,
93
00:09:17,502 --> 00:09:21,033
in order to convey the message to the audience.
94
00:09:21,033 --> 00:09:26,544
About this, the following slide explains
how spoken language is understood
95
00:09:26,544 --> 00:09:31,296
based on the strategic model of discourse comprehension.
96
00:09:33,639 --> 00:09:40,800
The strategic model of discourse comprehension
developed by van Dijk and Kintsch (1983)
97
00:09:40,800 --> 00:09:44,331
explains how spoken language is understood.
98
00:09:44,331 --> 00:09:50,535
By adapting it, it is possible to claim
that a velotypist understands the soure text
99
00:09:50,535 --> 00:09:53,703
by adopting the following strategies:
100
00:09:53,703 --> 00:09:57,036
form strategies, content strategies,
101
00:09:57,036 --> 00:10:04,230
textual strategies, procedural strategies
and general knowledge strategies.
102
00:10:04,230 --> 00:10:09,939
Form strategies are related to understanding
the words and grammar of the source text
103
00:10:09,939 --> 00:10:13,041
from sounds and grammar elements.
104
00:10:13,041 --> 00:10:20,169
Content strategies capitalise on form strategies
to understand the meaning of a text.
105
00:10:20,169 --> 00:10:25,152
Textual strategies contextualise this content.
106
00:10:25,152 --> 00:10:30,696
Procedural strategies relate
the ongoing comprehension of the source text
107
00:10:30,696 --> 00:10:35,316
to other texts similar to the one which is heard.
108
00:10:35,316 --> 00:10:41,058
and finally general knowledge strategies
allow more easily understand
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00:10:41,058 --> 00:10:45,183
how the source text related
to the rest of the world.
110
00:10:46,707 --> 00:10:50,727
After having strategically understood the source text
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00:10:50,727 --> 00:10:57,162
the velotypist adopts production strategies to come to the target text.
112
00:10:57,162 --> 00:11:04,356
By adapting the model proposed by Kohn e Kalina (1996)
for simultaneous interpreting,
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00:11:04,356 --> 00:11:07,722
it has been said that in velotyping contexts,
114
00:11:07,722 --> 00:11:14,718
professionals follow some strategies,
as highlighted in Element 1, LO1.
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00:11:14,718 --> 00:11:21,219
Within the production strategies
an interpreter/velotypist has to master
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00:11:21,219 --> 00:11:25,476
the following are strongly supported by the memory:
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00:11:25,476 --> 00:11:32,934
Inferencing, whereby the velotypist anticipates
linguistic elements
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00:11:32,934 --> 00:11:39,732
this means that the interpreter
needs to attentively follow the text if he /she wants
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00:11:39,732 --> 00:11:46,365
to anticipate some element in order to close the sentence
in the shortest time possible.
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00:11:46,365 --> 00:11:52,173
Memorising, whereby the velotypist postpones linguistic material.
121
00:11:52,173 --> 00:11:59,829
this means, to retrieve full sentences
while lagging behind because of several reasons.
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00:11:59,829 --> 00:12:03,888
Then, as we have expalined in Element 1 LO1,
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00:12:03,888 --> 00:12:06,924
among the production strategies are also:
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00:12:06,924 --> 00:12:10,818
Editing strategies either before going on air,
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00:12:10,818 --> 00:12:18,474
or while being on air either avoiding possible mistakes
through synonymy or paraphrase
126
00:12:18,474 --> 00:12:22,486
or by correcting mistakes before thay are aired.
127
00:12:22,486 --> 00:12:26,691
And finally, exit strategies, or 3 Gs,
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00:12:26,691 --> 00:12:34,512
are those strategies which are adopted in extreme conditions
to compensate for information loss.
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00:12:34,512 --> 00:12:38,109
This can be done through generalisation strategies
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00:12:38,109 --> 00:12:45,897
whereby the velotypist uses more general synonyms
or repeats previously mentioned content
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00:12:45,897 --> 00:12:53,586
another exit strategy is the gordian knot strategy,
also called 'cut and knit strategy'
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00:12:53,586 --> 00:12:58,041
whereby the velotypist omits bits of a sentence
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00:12:58,041 --> 00:13:03,948
but manages to produce
a grammatically correct and coherent sentence
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00:13:03,948 --> 00:13:08,271
the last exit strategy, Garwood strategy
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00:13:08,271 --> 00:13:14,095
is named after a simultaneous interpreting teacher
who used to repeating this all the time.
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00:13:23,319 --> 00:13:27,576
In order to deal with the complex process of typing as a whole
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00:13:27,576 --> 00:13:32,064
a professional has to implement strategic moves realtime,
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00:13:32,064 --> 00:13:37,212
and memory is paramount while working as a supportive system.
139
00:13:37,212 --> 00:13:43,878
While you can only develop this competence
by the time and thanks to ad hoc exercises,
140
00:13:43,878 --> 00:13:48,333
you may be interested in understanding the rationale behind it,
141
00:13:48,333 --> 00:13:53,976
through some examples of strategies,
as a way to develop it.
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00:13:53,976 --> 00:14:02,391
In particular, we will focus on omissions,
compression or condensation and expansion or addition.
143
00:14:04,297 --> 00:14:12,093
An aspect which can lead the velotypist
to omit a section or a sentence of the source text
144
00:14:12,093 --> 00:14:14,469
depends on how fast the speaker is.
145
00:14:14,469 --> 00:14:17,769
Here is an example taken from the press conference
146
00:14:17,769 --> 00:14:22,510
on the appointment of the city of London for the Olympic Games.
147
00:14:22,510 --> 00:14:25,194
The pace of the speech is very fast.
148
00:14:25,194 --> 00:14:29,352
When one of the members,
Dame Tanni Grey Thompson takes the floor,
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00:14:29,352 --> 00:14:32,850
he starts speaking much too fast, by saying:
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00:14:32,850 --> 00:14:37,569
I feel very proud to be a British athlete and a Paralympian.
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00:14:37,569 --> 00:14:44,565
There is not another country in the world
with so much attention to Paralympian athletes as the UK
152
00:14:44,565 --> 00:14:49,416
both in terms of financial support, and of media coverage.
153
00:14:49,416 --> 00:14:54,828
His way of speaking is too fast and this is confusing for the velotypist
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00:14:54,828 --> 00:14:58,788
who cannot retain the whole sentence on his memory,
155
00:14:58,788 --> 00:15:02,913
thus deciding to omit some portions of the source text.
156
00:15:02,913 --> 00:15:08,919
However, the reader of the subtitles
has the impressions something is being omitted,
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00:15:08,919 --> 00:15:14,628
but the logics behind the whole sentence is still maintained.
158
00:15:14,628 --> 00:15:18,786
Important to say is also the fact that the question of omission
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00:15:18,786 --> 00:15:24,297
intimately concerns the question of quality, as well as context.
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00:15:24,297 --> 00:15:28,224
If an omission is considered unquestionably valid
161
00:15:28,224 --> 00:15:35,649
then this is surely because “high quality” is not the same thing
as rendering everything in the source text.
162
00:15:35,649 --> 00:15:44,130
In fact, false starts, hesitations
and unnecessary repetitions are routinely omitted,
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00:15:44,130 --> 00:15:48,519
basically since such improvements in the quality of discourse
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00:15:48,519 --> 00:15:52,809
are seen as part of the velotypist’s service function.
165
00:15:54,096 --> 00:15:58,419
This strategy can be divided into two different kind:
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00:15:58,419 --> 00:16:03,732
semantic omission occurs when losing some words which are important
167
00:16:03,732 --> 00:16:06,699
for the whole understanding of the discourse,
168
00:16:06,699 --> 00:16:10,827
and that the audience cannot get from the rest of the context.
169
00:16:10,827 --> 00:16:18,450
The non semantic omission occurs when the velotypist
automatically deletes some parts of the spoken text
170
00:16:18,450 --> 00:16:24,786
(you see, it’s, it’s it’s very interesting…)
and redundant words.
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00:16:24,786 --> 00:16:30,913
These cases mainly happen
when the velotypist has to cut something in the speech
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00:16:30,913 --> 00:16:35,280
not to overcharge his/her working-memory.
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00:16:35,280 --> 00:16:42,342
In these cases, omissions
go to the benefit both of the memory load of the velotypist,
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00:16:42,342 --> 00:16:46,731
and to the benefit of the cognitive load of the audience.
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00:16:46,731 --> 00:16:48,909
Here are some examples.
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In example 1, the source text says:
Thank you, James, for…
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00:16:54,816 --> 00:16:58,809
And the target text says:
Thank you for…
178
00:16:58,809 --> 00:17:06,102
In example 2, the source text says:
We determine, as a council, three priorities.
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00:17:06,102 --> 00:17:10,953
The target text says:
We determined three priorities.
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00:17:12,054 --> 00:17:17,124
Compression is a strategy
that overlaps with omission in a certain way.
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00:17:17,124 --> 00:17:21,282
In fact, compression and omission have something in common.
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00:17:21,282 --> 00:17:28,938
Compression happens when the original meaning
is rendered by the interpreter in a more general and concise way,
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00:17:28,938 --> 00:17:32,469
deleting what is repetitive or redundant.
184
00:17:32,469 --> 00:17:38,178
Omission is used when the velotypist omits incomprehensible input,
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00:17:38,178 --> 00:17:45,537
unnecessarily repetitive, redundant, un-important,
or unacceptable utterances.
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00:17:45,537 --> 00:17:52,203
Therefore, the application of one of them
may entail the employment of the other.
187
00:17:52,203 --> 00:17:58,605
In particular, condensation strategy
facilitates working under time pressure,
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00:17:58,605 --> 00:18:01,872
while conveying complete information.
189
00:18:01,872 --> 00:18:10,947
It consists in formulating concise and synthetic utterances,
and deleting superfluous words.
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00:18:10,947 --> 00:18:13,752
In the example the source text reads:
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00:18:13,752 --> 00:18:18,339
The setup program results in an update of the registry.
192
00:18:18,339 --> 00:18:24,312
The target text says:
The setup program updates the registry.
193
00:18:24,312 --> 00:18:29,031
In the target text a strong verb is used, 'to update'
194
00:18:29,031 --> 00:18:33,519
instead of its nominalized variant in the source text
195
00:18:33,519 --> 00:18:37,063
that is 'the update of the registry'.
196
00:18:37,063 --> 00:18:43,683
This way of facilitating the sentence
helps the velotypist retain the right information
197
00:18:43,683 --> 00:18:48,996
by relieving the cognitive load on the working memory.
198
00:18:49,920 --> 00:18:57,741
Expansion represents a strategy
in which the velotypist has to trust his/her memory system
199
00:18:57,741 --> 00:19:01,635
in terms of retention of information.
200
00:19:01,635 --> 00:19:07,146
The velotypist adds information or expands the source discourse,
201
00:19:07,146 --> 00:19:15,693
so as to better convey or clarify the message
and avoid unclear information in the target discourse.
202
00:19:15,693 --> 00:19:19,950
As we have already examined in the previous example,
203
00:19:19,950 --> 00:19:25,263
velotypists tend to stick to the source text as much as possible,
204
00:19:25,263 --> 00:19:30,873
and to omit something only in cases of false starts,
hesitations,
205
00:19:30,873 --> 00:19:37,176
unnecessary repetitions or prolix and redundant ritual wording.
206
00:19:37,176 --> 00:19:43,710
Also, a velotypist can omit something
when in trouble with the fast pace of the speaker.
207
00:19:43,710 --> 00:19:51,003
In this framework, one could think that
there is no much room for expansions in the typing process,
208
00:19:51,003 --> 00:19:59,286
intended as addition of information
or clarification of particularly difficult concepts.
209
00:19:59,286 --> 00:20:06,084
However, expansions sometimes are necessary
in order to retrieve previous information
210
00:20:06,084 --> 00:20:10,407
or to clarify not very clear concepts.
211
00:20:10,407 --> 00:20:15,588
Here, in an example of expansion at a sentence level.
212
00:20:15,588 --> 00:20:22,221
The source text says:
Gunmen have settled a ferocious battle with police.
213
00:20:22,221 --> 00:20:28,656
The target text says:
Reports say that people have started to fight with the police.
214
00:20:28,656 --> 00:20:36,312
In this case, not only the velotypist introduces a hedging
which is not present in the original text,
215
00:20:36,312 --> 00:20:40,437
but he also simplifies the lexis of the source text,
216
00:20:40,437 --> 00:20:45,090
without weakening the language at the level of the sentence.
217
00:20:50,832 --> 00:20:59,775
In this LO we have introduced the main competence of the velotypist,
the psycho-cognitive skill of memory.
218
00:20:59,775 --> 00:21:03,933
In particular we have dealt with two important aspects,
219
00:21:03,933 --> 00:21:09,213
a theoretical one that is the memory divided into sensory memory,
220
00:21:09,213 --> 00:21:14,262
long-term memory, and short-term memory or working memory,
221
00:21:14,262 --> 00:21:22,941
and a more practical one, on the inferencing
and memorising strategies used by the velotypist.
222
00:21:22,941 --> 00:21:31,290
In the case of inferencing strategies,
the velotypist recovers lost or incomprehensible information
223
00:21:31,290 --> 00:21:36,570
on the basis of the speech context and his or her general knowledge,
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or he anticipates lexico-grammar or conceptual elements.
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In the case of memorising strategies, the velotypist
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postpones lexico-grammar or conceptual elements.
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One way to go for that is trying to semi-automatise these actions.
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To do so, memorising is the exercise to start with.
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In the homework session, we will see how to do this in practice.